TY - BOOK
T1 - Advances in performance testing and training in competitive rowing
T2 - From the lab to the field
AU - Held, Steffen
N1 - Kumulative Dissertation
PY - 2021/8/4
Y1 - 2021/8/4
N2 - In general, rowing can be characterized as a cyclical (Guével et al., 2011; Turpin et al., 2011) strength-endurance sport (García-Pallarés & Izquierdo, 2011; Mäestu et al., 2005; Nugent et al., 2020). Therefore, three cross-sectional studies (CHAPTER 2-4; Held et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020) were conducted to examined the cyclical character of rowing (CHAPTER 8.1). Subsequent, two longitudinal studies (CHAPTER 5-6; Held, Behringer, et al., 2019; Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) examined rowing as a strength-endurance-sport (CHAPTER 8.2), by evaluating the effects of blood flow restriction and velocity-based strength training on relevant performance surrogates in rowing. Cyclical character of rowingPurpose: The consideration of the temporal and electromyographic (EMG) characteristics of stretch-shortening cycles (SSC) are crucial for the conceptualization of discipline-specific testing and training. In general, SSC are characterized by i) performance enhancement effects compared to isolated concentric contractions (Bosco, Montanari, Ribacchi, et al., 1987; Cavagna et al., 1968; Flanagan & Comyns, 2008); ii) a training-methodological differentiation of slow and fast SSC (Duncan & Lyons, 2009; Flanagan, 2007; Schmidtbleicher, 1992); and iii) by utilising optimal movement parameters (e.g. muscle shortening velocity) for maximum power outputs (e.g. jump height, cycle velocity)(Haas & Schmidtbleicher, 2011; Komi, 2003; van Soest & Casius, 2000). It is however unclear, if the potential SSC during flexion-extension cycle (FEC) of the legs in rowing i) revealed performance enhancement effects (CHAPTER 2; Held et al., 2019a); ii) can be attributed to either a slow or fast SSC (CHAPTER 3; Held et al., 2020); and iii) is characterized by an optimum relation between power output and relevant movement parameters (like stroke rate, gearing and drag factor) (CHAPTER 4; Held et al., 2019b).Methods: Thus, CHAPTER 2 (Held et al., 2019a) examined the occurrence and magnitude of rowing performance enhancements during FEC-type rowing compared to both, concentric contractions only and isometric pre-contraction. Therefore, 31 sub-elite male rowers (25 ± 6 years, 1.90 ± 0.02 m, 91 ± 10 kg, weekly training volume: 11.4 ± 5.3 h∙week-1, rowing experience: 7.1 ± 2.7 years) randomly completed i) isolated concentric rowing strokes (DRIVE); ii) single FEC-type rowing strokes (SLIDE-DRIVE); and iii) rowing strokes with an isometric pre-contraction (ISO-DRIVE). The resulting rowing power (Prow), leg power (Pleg) and work-per-stroke (WPS) were recorded using motion-capturing, force and rotation sensors. Subsequent, CHAPTER 3 (Held et al., 2020) captured EMG of the m. vastus medialis and m. gastrocnemius of 10 sub-elite male rowers (23 ± 3 years, 1.90 ± 0.06 m, 82.1 ± 9.8 kg) during (single scull) rowing and subsequently compared to typical slow (countermovement jump, CMJ) and fast (drop jump, DJ) SSC. The elapsed time between the EMG onset and the start of the eccentric phase was monitored. The pre-activation phase (PRE; before the start of the eccentric phase) and the reflex induced activation phase (RIA; 30-120 ms after the start of the eccentric phase) have been classified. Finally, CHAPTER 4 (Held et al., 2019b) measured Prow, Pleg and WPS in dependence of varying stroke rates (20-45 spm), gearings (lever-changes 0.87-0.90 m) and drag factors (100-180 Ws3·m-3) during rowing. Therefore, experienced sub-elite rowers performed sprint series on (single scull; n=69, 20 ± 2 years, 1.86 ± 0.07 m, 84 ± 9 kg) and off the water (rowing ergometer; n=30, 19 ± 3 years, 1.85 ± 0.11 m, 77 ± 19 kg).Results: The comparison of DRIVE and SLIDE-DRIVE in CHAPTER 2 (Held et al., 2019a) revealed significantly (p<0.05) higher Prow (+11.8 ± 14.0 %), Pleg (+19.6 ± 26.7 %) and WPS (+9.9 ± 10.5 %) during SLIDE-DRIVE. Compared to ISO-DRIVE, Pleg (+9.8 ± 26.6 %), and WPS (+6.1 ± 6.7 %) were again significantly (p<0.05) higher for SLIDE-DRIVE. CHAPTER 3 (Held et al., 2020) revealed notable muscular activity during DJ before the start of the eccentric phase (PRE) as well as during RIA. In contrast, neither CMJ nor rowing showed any EMG activity in these two phases. Interestingly, CMJ and race-specific rowing revealed an EMG onset during the eccentric phase. CHAPTER 4 (Held et al., 2019b) observed that Prow Increased with stroke rates for boat (r=0.98, p<0.001) and ergometer measurements (r=0.97, p<0.001) by 4.4% and 2.7% per stroke, respectively. Interestingly, stroke rate had a high impact on WPS (r=0.79, p<0.001) during boat measurement, compared to no (or specifically no high) impact on WPS (r=-0.10, p=0.166) during ergometer measurements. Gearing (boat: r=0.60, p<0.001) and drag factor (ergometer: r=0.83, p<0.001) yielded moderate to high correlations to Prow.Conclusion: In conclusion, notably higher work and power outputs (compared to an isolated concentric contraction) during FEC-type rowing (CHAPTER 2; Held et al., 2019a) referred to an potentially underlying SSC. The results of CHAPTER 3 (Held et al., 2020) indicated that this potential SSC during FEC-type rowing is more attributable to slow SSC and implied that fast SSC does not reflect discipline-specific muscle action and could hamper rowing performance enhancements. The findings of CHAPTER 4 (Held et al., 2019b) revealed that there exist no optimum stroke rate, gearing and drag factor for maximum power outputs in rowing (sprint measurement range). Accordingly, the measurements yielded maximum power for maximal stroke rate, gearing, and drag factor. Future ultrasound studies should elucidate whether FEC-type rowing contains a real SSC on fascicle level.Developing strength-endurance in rowingPurpose: The present randomized controlled trial (RCT) (CHAPTER 5; Held, Behringer, et al., 2019) examined the effects of practical blood flow restriction (pBFR) on maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) and one-repetition maximum (1RM) during low intensity rowing. Subsequent, the RCT of CHAPTER 6 (Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) examined the effects of velocity-based strength training with a 10% velocity loss (VL10) vs. traditional 1RM based resistance training to failure (TRF) on 1RM and V̇O2max during a concurrent training setting.Methods: Thus, CHAPTER 5 (Held, Behringer, et al., 2019) assigned 31 elite rowers to either BFR or non BFR (noBFR) groups by using the minimization method (strata: gender, age, height, V̇O2max). While BFR (n=16; 4 female, 12 male, 22 ± 3 years, 1.80 ± 0.09 m, 73.6 ± 10.9 kg, V̇O2max: 63.0 ± 7.9 ml·kg-1·min-1) used pBFR during boat and indoor rowing training, noBFR (n=15, 4 female, 11 male, 22 ± 4 years, 1.80 ± 0.08 m, 72.5 ± 12.1 kg, V̇O2max: 63.2 ± 8.5 ml·kg-1·min-1) completed the identical training without pBFR. pBFR of the lower limb was applied via customized elastic wraps. The pBFR training took place three times a week over 5 weeks (accumulated net pBFR: 60 min per week; occlusion per session: 2-times 10 min) and was used exclusively at low intensities. A spiroergometric rowing ergometer ramp test (V̇O2max) and an 1RM test of the squat exercise (SQ1RM) was employed to assess endurance and strength capacities. Subsequent, CHAPTER 6 (Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) assigned 21 highly trained rowers (4 female, 17 male, 19.6 ± 2.1 years, 1.83 ± 0.07 m, 74.6 ± 8.8 kg, V̇O2max: 64.9 ± 8.5 ml·kg-1·min-1) to either VL10 or TRF, using the minimization method (strata: gender, age, height, V̇O2max, sum of 1RM). In addition to endurance training (about 75 min per day), both groups performed VL10 or TRF resistance training (5 exercises, 80% 1RM, 4 sets, 2-3 min inter-set recovery, 2-times per week) over 8 weeks. Squat (SQ1RM), deadlift (DL1RM), bench row (BR1RM) and bench press (BP1RM) 1RM and V̇O2max rowing ergometer ramp tests were completed. Overall recovery (OR) and overall stress (OS) were monitored every evening using the Short Recovery and Stress Scale. Results: CHAPTER 5 (Held, Behringer, et al., 2019) revealed significant group × time interactions (p<0.05, ηp²=0.26) in favour of BFR for V̇O2max (+9.1 ± 6.2 %, standard mean differences [SMD] = 1.3) compared to noBFR (+2.5 ± 6.1 %, SMD = 0.3). SQ1RM (p>0.05, ηp² = 0.01) was not affected by the pBFR intervention. CHAPTER 6 (Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) revealed significant group × time interactions (p<0.03, ηp²>0.23, SMD>0.65) in favour of VL10 (averaged +18.0 ± 11.3 %) for SQ1RM, BR1RM and BP1RM compared to TRF (averaged +8.0 ± 2.9 %). V̇O2max revealed no interaction effects (p=0.55, ηp²=0.01, SMD<0.23) but large time effects (p<0.05, ηp²>0.27). Significant group × time interactions (p=0.001, ηp2>0.54, SMD>|0.525|) in favour of VL10 were observed for OR and OS 24 and 48h post resistance training.Conclusion: CHAPTER 5 (Held, Behringer, et al., 2019) revealed that 15 sessions of pBFR application with a cumulative total pBFR stimulus of 5h over a 5 weeks macrocycle remarkably increased V̇O2max. Thus, pBFR might serve as promising method to improve aerobic capacity in highly trained elite rowers. In addition, CHAPTER 6 (Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) revealed that VL10 might serve as a promising method to improve strength capacity at lower repetitions and stress levels in highly trained athletes.
AB - In general, rowing can be characterized as a cyclical (Guével et al., 2011; Turpin et al., 2011) strength-endurance sport (García-Pallarés & Izquierdo, 2011; Mäestu et al., 2005; Nugent et al., 2020). Therefore, three cross-sectional studies (CHAPTER 2-4; Held et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020) were conducted to examined the cyclical character of rowing (CHAPTER 8.1). Subsequent, two longitudinal studies (CHAPTER 5-6; Held, Behringer, et al., 2019; Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) examined rowing as a strength-endurance-sport (CHAPTER 8.2), by evaluating the effects of blood flow restriction and velocity-based strength training on relevant performance surrogates in rowing. Cyclical character of rowingPurpose: The consideration of the temporal and electromyographic (EMG) characteristics of stretch-shortening cycles (SSC) are crucial for the conceptualization of discipline-specific testing and training. In general, SSC are characterized by i) performance enhancement effects compared to isolated concentric contractions (Bosco, Montanari, Ribacchi, et al., 1987; Cavagna et al., 1968; Flanagan & Comyns, 2008); ii) a training-methodological differentiation of slow and fast SSC (Duncan & Lyons, 2009; Flanagan, 2007; Schmidtbleicher, 1992); and iii) by utilising optimal movement parameters (e.g. muscle shortening velocity) for maximum power outputs (e.g. jump height, cycle velocity)(Haas & Schmidtbleicher, 2011; Komi, 2003; van Soest & Casius, 2000). It is however unclear, if the potential SSC during flexion-extension cycle (FEC) of the legs in rowing i) revealed performance enhancement effects (CHAPTER 2; Held et al., 2019a); ii) can be attributed to either a slow or fast SSC (CHAPTER 3; Held et al., 2020); and iii) is characterized by an optimum relation between power output and relevant movement parameters (like stroke rate, gearing and drag factor) (CHAPTER 4; Held et al., 2019b).Methods: Thus, CHAPTER 2 (Held et al., 2019a) examined the occurrence and magnitude of rowing performance enhancements during FEC-type rowing compared to both, concentric contractions only and isometric pre-contraction. Therefore, 31 sub-elite male rowers (25 ± 6 years, 1.90 ± 0.02 m, 91 ± 10 kg, weekly training volume: 11.4 ± 5.3 h∙week-1, rowing experience: 7.1 ± 2.7 years) randomly completed i) isolated concentric rowing strokes (DRIVE); ii) single FEC-type rowing strokes (SLIDE-DRIVE); and iii) rowing strokes with an isometric pre-contraction (ISO-DRIVE). The resulting rowing power (Prow), leg power (Pleg) and work-per-stroke (WPS) were recorded using motion-capturing, force and rotation sensors. Subsequent, CHAPTER 3 (Held et al., 2020) captured EMG of the m. vastus medialis and m. gastrocnemius of 10 sub-elite male rowers (23 ± 3 years, 1.90 ± 0.06 m, 82.1 ± 9.8 kg) during (single scull) rowing and subsequently compared to typical slow (countermovement jump, CMJ) and fast (drop jump, DJ) SSC. The elapsed time between the EMG onset and the start of the eccentric phase was monitored. The pre-activation phase (PRE; before the start of the eccentric phase) and the reflex induced activation phase (RIA; 30-120 ms after the start of the eccentric phase) have been classified. Finally, CHAPTER 4 (Held et al., 2019b) measured Prow, Pleg and WPS in dependence of varying stroke rates (20-45 spm), gearings (lever-changes 0.87-0.90 m) and drag factors (100-180 Ws3·m-3) during rowing. Therefore, experienced sub-elite rowers performed sprint series on (single scull; n=69, 20 ± 2 years, 1.86 ± 0.07 m, 84 ± 9 kg) and off the water (rowing ergometer; n=30, 19 ± 3 years, 1.85 ± 0.11 m, 77 ± 19 kg).Results: The comparison of DRIVE and SLIDE-DRIVE in CHAPTER 2 (Held et al., 2019a) revealed significantly (p<0.05) higher Prow (+11.8 ± 14.0 %), Pleg (+19.6 ± 26.7 %) and WPS (+9.9 ± 10.5 %) during SLIDE-DRIVE. Compared to ISO-DRIVE, Pleg (+9.8 ± 26.6 %), and WPS (+6.1 ± 6.7 %) were again significantly (p<0.05) higher for SLIDE-DRIVE. CHAPTER 3 (Held et al., 2020) revealed notable muscular activity during DJ before the start of the eccentric phase (PRE) as well as during RIA. In contrast, neither CMJ nor rowing showed any EMG activity in these two phases. Interestingly, CMJ and race-specific rowing revealed an EMG onset during the eccentric phase. CHAPTER 4 (Held et al., 2019b) observed that Prow Increased with stroke rates for boat (r=0.98, p<0.001) and ergometer measurements (r=0.97, p<0.001) by 4.4% and 2.7% per stroke, respectively. Interestingly, stroke rate had a high impact on WPS (r=0.79, p<0.001) during boat measurement, compared to no (or specifically no high) impact on WPS (r=-0.10, p=0.166) during ergometer measurements. Gearing (boat: r=0.60, p<0.001) and drag factor (ergometer: r=0.83, p<0.001) yielded moderate to high correlations to Prow.Conclusion: In conclusion, notably higher work and power outputs (compared to an isolated concentric contraction) during FEC-type rowing (CHAPTER 2; Held et al., 2019a) referred to an potentially underlying SSC. The results of CHAPTER 3 (Held et al., 2020) indicated that this potential SSC during FEC-type rowing is more attributable to slow SSC and implied that fast SSC does not reflect discipline-specific muscle action and could hamper rowing performance enhancements. The findings of CHAPTER 4 (Held et al., 2019b) revealed that there exist no optimum stroke rate, gearing and drag factor for maximum power outputs in rowing (sprint measurement range). Accordingly, the measurements yielded maximum power for maximal stroke rate, gearing, and drag factor. Future ultrasound studies should elucidate whether FEC-type rowing contains a real SSC on fascicle level.Developing strength-endurance in rowingPurpose: The present randomized controlled trial (RCT) (CHAPTER 5; Held, Behringer, et al., 2019) examined the effects of practical blood flow restriction (pBFR) on maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) and one-repetition maximum (1RM) during low intensity rowing. Subsequent, the RCT of CHAPTER 6 (Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) examined the effects of velocity-based strength training with a 10% velocity loss (VL10) vs. traditional 1RM based resistance training to failure (TRF) on 1RM and V̇O2max during a concurrent training setting.Methods: Thus, CHAPTER 5 (Held, Behringer, et al., 2019) assigned 31 elite rowers to either BFR or non BFR (noBFR) groups by using the minimization method (strata: gender, age, height, V̇O2max). While BFR (n=16; 4 female, 12 male, 22 ± 3 years, 1.80 ± 0.09 m, 73.6 ± 10.9 kg, V̇O2max: 63.0 ± 7.9 ml·kg-1·min-1) used pBFR during boat and indoor rowing training, noBFR (n=15, 4 female, 11 male, 22 ± 4 years, 1.80 ± 0.08 m, 72.5 ± 12.1 kg, V̇O2max: 63.2 ± 8.5 ml·kg-1·min-1) completed the identical training without pBFR. pBFR of the lower limb was applied via customized elastic wraps. The pBFR training took place three times a week over 5 weeks (accumulated net pBFR: 60 min per week; occlusion per session: 2-times 10 min) and was used exclusively at low intensities. A spiroergometric rowing ergometer ramp test (V̇O2max) and an 1RM test of the squat exercise (SQ1RM) was employed to assess endurance and strength capacities. Subsequent, CHAPTER 6 (Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) assigned 21 highly trained rowers (4 female, 17 male, 19.6 ± 2.1 years, 1.83 ± 0.07 m, 74.6 ± 8.8 kg, V̇O2max: 64.9 ± 8.5 ml·kg-1·min-1) to either VL10 or TRF, using the minimization method (strata: gender, age, height, V̇O2max, sum of 1RM). In addition to endurance training (about 75 min per day), both groups performed VL10 or TRF resistance training (5 exercises, 80% 1RM, 4 sets, 2-3 min inter-set recovery, 2-times per week) over 8 weeks. Squat (SQ1RM), deadlift (DL1RM), bench row (BR1RM) and bench press (BP1RM) 1RM and V̇O2max rowing ergometer ramp tests were completed. Overall recovery (OR) and overall stress (OS) were monitored every evening using the Short Recovery and Stress Scale. Results: CHAPTER 5 (Held, Behringer, et al., 2019) revealed significant group × time interactions (p<0.05, ηp²=0.26) in favour of BFR for V̇O2max (+9.1 ± 6.2 %, standard mean differences [SMD] = 1.3) compared to noBFR (+2.5 ± 6.1 %, SMD = 0.3). SQ1RM (p>0.05, ηp² = 0.01) was not affected by the pBFR intervention. CHAPTER 6 (Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) revealed significant group × time interactions (p<0.03, ηp²>0.23, SMD>0.65) in favour of VL10 (averaged +18.0 ± 11.3 %) for SQ1RM, BR1RM and BP1RM compared to TRF (averaged +8.0 ± 2.9 %). V̇O2max revealed no interaction effects (p=0.55, ηp²=0.01, SMD<0.23) but large time effects (p<0.05, ηp²>0.27). Significant group × time interactions (p=0.001, ηp2>0.54, SMD>|0.525|) in favour of VL10 were observed for OR and OS 24 and 48h post resistance training.Conclusion: CHAPTER 5 (Held, Behringer, et al., 2019) revealed that 15 sessions of pBFR application with a cumulative total pBFR stimulus of 5h over a 5 weeks macrocycle remarkably increased V̇O2max. Thus, pBFR might serve as promising method to improve aerobic capacity in highly trained elite rowers. In addition, CHAPTER 6 (Held, Hecksteden, et al., 2020) revealed that VL10 might serve as a promising method to improve strength capacity at lower repetitions and stress levels in highly trained athletes.
M3 - Dissertations
BT - Advances in performance testing and training in competitive rowing
PB - Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln
CY - Köln
ER -