TY - BOOK
T1 - Development and evaluation of metabolic and mechanical determinants of swimming performance
AU - Keller, Sebastian
N1 - Kumulative Dissertation
PY - 2024
Y1 - 2024
N2 - Swimming performance, i.e., the highest average swimming speed achieved in competition, is determined by a complex interplay between providing high metabolic power, including anaerobic and aerobic energy contributions, and minimizing the energy cost of swimming (C), which is influenced by mechanical parameters, e.g., anthropometric, neuromuscular, and technical properties. Since competition performances can take from ~20 s (50 m front crawl) up to ~2 h (10 km open water), the different disciplines are characterized by different contributions of the determinants. Compared to land-based sports, such as running, a smaller proportion of metabolic power is converted into propulsion in swimming due to the additional energy used to transfer kinetic energy to the water without contributing to propulsion, and due to the high density of water (i.e., > 800 times that of air) increasing drag. As a result, the spectrum of (sub-)maximal speeds in swimming is narrow, with the heavy intensity domain (i.e., between the first metabolic threshold and maximal metabolic steady state [MMSS]) being only 0.06 – 0.10 m∙s-1. Therefore, in order to adequately represent swimming performance development, diagnostic test protocols and parameters need to be accurate, specific, and sensitive while reflecting the complex interplay of the aforementioned determinants. However, since the present diagnostic test battery of the German Swimming Federation (DSV) for its squad swimmers did not or insufficiently fulfill some of these requirements, the aim of this PhD thesis, which was developed in three consecutive projects in cooperation with the DSV and the North Rhine-Westphalia State Swimming Federation, was the development of metabolic and mechanical indicators of swimming performance for the long-term monitoring of athletes. Precisely, the first study aimed to develop and evaluate novel metabolic test protocols to more accurately and sensitively represent the narrow intensity ranges in swimming. Building on the validation study, the aim of the second study was to use the novel test protocols to monitor the performance development of junior swimmers over a seasonal cycle, considering the aforementioned metabolic and mechanical determinants. In order to take into account not only metabolic but also neuromuscular determinants specifically for swimming, the third aim was to apply and further develop a novel testing method to enable individualized training derivations.In the first study, lactate thresholds derived from different incremental protocols, i.e., step test, lactate minimum test, and reverse lactate threshold test, were compared with maximal lactate steady state, which served as the criterion representing MMSS. Fixed duration increments and a high work-rate resolution (≤ 0.03 m∙s-1) were used in all test protocols to ensure high sensitivity. The investigation of 23 swimmers or triathletes (12 male and 11 female) of different ages and performance levels showed overall slight deviations between the threshold estimates and the criterion (≤ 0.02 m∙s-1) underlined by high intraclass correlation coefficients (≥ 0.886). Therefore, test protocols with a fixed step duration and fine increments allowed high accuracy in estimating the speed corresponding to maximal lactate steady state. Given the similar criterion agreement to the lactate minimum and reverse lactate threshold, lactate thresholds derived from incremental step tests appear more practicable as less prior knowledge is required and individual training zones can be derived based on lactate threshold 1 and 2.In the second study, the longitudinal interplay of anthropometric, metabolic, and neuromuscular development was examined in relation to performance (i.e., [sub-]maximal swimming speeds) in adolescent national-level swimmers over a season using the previously validated test protocols. Seven male and 12 female junior squad swimmers were tested before and after the preparation period, at the season’s peak, and before the next season. Besides dryland anthropometric (e.g., fat percentage) and neuromuscular assessment (squat and bench press load-velocity profile), metabolic power (maximal oxygen uptake [V̇O2peak] as an indicator of aerobic and lactate accumulation of anaerobic power), C, and performance (sprinting speed and lactate thresholds) were determined in water. Although only trivial to moderate variation was observed in all parameters and their relationships over the annual cycle, peaking was evident in neuromuscular capacities (≥ 10% increase in squat and bench press maximal strength and rapid force production), metabolic power (~5% increase in V̇O2peak), and speed at lactate thresholds (≥ 0.02 m∙s-1 increase) from the preparation to the competition period. Thus, increases in strength and V̇O2peak from the preparation to the competition period resulted in improved swimming performance. Lastly, to further develop swim-specific neuromuscular testing, semi-tethered load-velocity profiling in water was used to examine lower and upper extremity contributions to whole-body front crawl swimming in nine female and 11 male (inter-)national-level swimmers. The theoretical maximal speed and load, and active drag were expressed as a percentage of the sum of both extremities for the movements of each extremity to calculate their contributions. The difference of whole-body values minus the sum of both extremities was used to estimate whole-body reserves. Across all parameters, unexpectedly large lower body contributions (≥ 37%) were observed, indicating a substantial role for front crawl sprint swimming regardless of sex. However, large inter-individual variation in lower and upper body contributions in this highly trained sample still indicates individual potential for improvement in training. In addition, based on moderate to very high correlations (r ≥ 0.47) between speed reserves and theoretical maximal whole-body speed in swimmers of both sexes, better sprint performance seems to be associated with efficient speed transfer from lower and upper to whole-body movement. Collectively, the results of this PhD thesis show that MMSS and thus the narrow intensity ranges in swimming can be accurately determined using the developed incremental step test protocol with fixed duration stages and fine increments, enabling individualized training zones to be derived. In addition, due to its high sensitivity, it can also be used to monitor performance development, taking into account metabolic determinants, even in highly trained athletes, which has already been implemented on a state level and is now to be implemented at the national level (DSV). In terms of neuromuscular testing, semi-tethered load-velocity profiling enables not only swim-specific assessment of strength and speed potentials, but also of lower and upper extremity contributions to whole-body swimming as well as whole-body reserves, allowing individualized training derivations for neuromuscular parameters.
AB - Swimming performance, i.e., the highest average swimming speed achieved in competition, is determined by a complex interplay between providing high metabolic power, including anaerobic and aerobic energy contributions, and minimizing the energy cost of swimming (C), which is influenced by mechanical parameters, e.g., anthropometric, neuromuscular, and technical properties. Since competition performances can take from ~20 s (50 m front crawl) up to ~2 h (10 km open water), the different disciplines are characterized by different contributions of the determinants. Compared to land-based sports, such as running, a smaller proportion of metabolic power is converted into propulsion in swimming due to the additional energy used to transfer kinetic energy to the water without contributing to propulsion, and due to the high density of water (i.e., > 800 times that of air) increasing drag. As a result, the spectrum of (sub-)maximal speeds in swimming is narrow, with the heavy intensity domain (i.e., between the first metabolic threshold and maximal metabolic steady state [MMSS]) being only 0.06 – 0.10 m∙s-1. Therefore, in order to adequately represent swimming performance development, diagnostic test protocols and parameters need to be accurate, specific, and sensitive while reflecting the complex interplay of the aforementioned determinants. However, since the present diagnostic test battery of the German Swimming Federation (DSV) for its squad swimmers did not or insufficiently fulfill some of these requirements, the aim of this PhD thesis, which was developed in three consecutive projects in cooperation with the DSV and the North Rhine-Westphalia State Swimming Federation, was the development of metabolic and mechanical indicators of swimming performance for the long-term monitoring of athletes. Precisely, the first study aimed to develop and evaluate novel metabolic test protocols to more accurately and sensitively represent the narrow intensity ranges in swimming. Building on the validation study, the aim of the second study was to use the novel test protocols to monitor the performance development of junior swimmers over a seasonal cycle, considering the aforementioned metabolic and mechanical determinants. In order to take into account not only metabolic but also neuromuscular determinants specifically for swimming, the third aim was to apply and further develop a novel testing method to enable individualized training derivations.In the first study, lactate thresholds derived from different incremental protocols, i.e., step test, lactate minimum test, and reverse lactate threshold test, were compared with maximal lactate steady state, which served as the criterion representing MMSS. Fixed duration increments and a high work-rate resolution (≤ 0.03 m∙s-1) were used in all test protocols to ensure high sensitivity. The investigation of 23 swimmers or triathletes (12 male and 11 female) of different ages and performance levels showed overall slight deviations between the threshold estimates and the criterion (≤ 0.02 m∙s-1) underlined by high intraclass correlation coefficients (≥ 0.886). Therefore, test protocols with a fixed step duration and fine increments allowed high accuracy in estimating the speed corresponding to maximal lactate steady state. Given the similar criterion agreement to the lactate minimum and reverse lactate threshold, lactate thresholds derived from incremental step tests appear more practicable as less prior knowledge is required and individual training zones can be derived based on lactate threshold 1 and 2.In the second study, the longitudinal interplay of anthropometric, metabolic, and neuromuscular development was examined in relation to performance (i.e., [sub-]maximal swimming speeds) in adolescent national-level swimmers over a season using the previously validated test protocols. Seven male and 12 female junior squad swimmers were tested before and after the preparation period, at the season’s peak, and before the next season. Besides dryland anthropometric (e.g., fat percentage) and neuromuscular assessment (squat and bench press load-velocity profile), metabolic power (maximal oxygen uptake [V̇O2peak] as an indicator of aerobic and lactate accumulation of anaerobic power), C, and performance (sprinting speed and lactate thresholds) were determined in water. Although only trivial to moderate variation was observed in all parameters and their relationships over the annual cycle, peaking was evident in neuromuscular capacities (≥ 10% increase in squat and bench press maximal strength and rapid force production), metabolic power (~5% increase in V̇O2peak), and speed at lactate thresholds (≥ 0.02 m∙s-1 increase) from the preparation to the competition period. Thus, increases in strength and V̇O2peak from the preparation to the competition period resulted in improved swimming performance. Lastly, to further develop swim-specific neuromuscular testing, semi-tethered load-velocity profiling in water was used to examine lower and upper extremity contributions to whole-body front crawl swimming in nine female and 11 male (inter-)national-level swimmers. The theoretical maximal speed and load, and active drag were expressed as a percentage of the sum of both extremities for the movements of each extremity to calculate their contributions. The difference of whole-body values minus the sum of both extremities was used to estimate whole-body reserves. Across all parameters, unexpectedly large lower body contributions (≥ 37%) were observed, indicating a substantial role for front crawl sprint swimming regardless of sex. However, large inter-individual variation in lower and upper body contributions in this highly trained sample still indicates individual potential for improvement in training. In addition, based on moderate to very high correlations (r ≥ 0.47) between speed reserves and theoretical maximal whole-body speed in swimmers of both sexes, better sprint performance seems to be associated with efficient speed transfer from lower and upper to whole-body movement. Collectively, the results of this PhD thesis show that MMSS and thus the narrow intensity ranges in swimming can be accurately determined using the developed incremental step test protocol with fixed duration stages and fine increments, enabling individualized training zones to be derived. In addition, due to its high sensitivity, it can also be used to monitor performance development, taking into account metabolic determinants, even in highly trained athletes, which has already been implemented on a state level and is now to be implemented at the national level (DSV). In terms of neuromuscular testing, semi-tethered load-velocity profiling enables not only swim-specific assessment of strength and speed potentials, but also of lower and upper extremity contributions to whole-body swimming as well as whole-body reserves, allowing individualized training derivations for neuromuscular parameters.
M3 - Dissertations
BT - Development and evaluation of metabolic and mechanical determinants of swimming performance
PB - Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln
CY - Köln
ER -