Abstract
Abstract
Introduction: Isoflavones (ISO) are able to bind to the estrogen receptors and therefore belong to the group of phytoestrogens. Naturally, they occur mainly in soy as glycosides of genistein, daidzein and glycitein. The traditional high intake of soy and, thus, ISO in East Asian diet is often associated with health beneficial effects such as a lower prevalence of hormone-related cancer and obesity compared to Western populations. Therefore, isolated ISO are marketed as part of nutritional supplements to improve prostate health but also to treat postmenopausal disorders among others. Further, soy based infant nutrition is a major source of ISO in western countries. However, neither the positive benefit of ISO is scientifically proven nor the risk of adverse effects is clearly established. Critical differences between the East Asian and Western ISO intake are the different periods of exposure, the dose and the food matrix. The aim of the present thesis was to investigate the influence of ISO during critical periods of development in a Wistar rat model on different endpoints. The major focus was on the one hand the effect of ISO on male organism including the interaction of ISO and androgens and on the other hand the effect of neonatal ISO exposure on the female reproductive tract.
Methods: Therefore, two breeding experiments with Wistar rats were conducted. First, a dose response experiment was performed in male rats starting exposure to ISO in utero, maintaining it through adolescence into adulthood. Until sacrification at postnatal day (PND) 99, rats received an ISO-depleted diet (IDD) or two different ISO-rich diets (IRDlow: 0.068 mg ISO aglycone equivalent/g diet; IRDhigh: 0.506 mg ISO aglycone equivalent/g diet) based on the IDD and enriched with a soy ISO extract. To investigate androgen sensitivity rats were orchiectomized at PND 81. After hormonal decline for 7 days, rats were subcutaneously treated with testosterone propionate [TP (1 mg/kg bw/day)] or vehicle for 11 days. For each diet group a concurrent intact group was investigated as well. A second animal experiment was performed to investigate effects by neonatal ISO exposure. Rats were exposed to IDD and IRD during embryogenesis and adolescence. Female pups of each group were fed daily by pipette with ISO-suspension (ISO+; 32 mg ISO/kg bw) or placebo from PND 1 until PND 23. Female rats were sacrificed at PND 23 and 80, respectively.
Results: Key findings of the first experiment include effects of ISO on fat metabolism, bone density and androgen sensitivity and also the influence of androgens on ISO bioavailability and phase-II-metabolism. The body composition of intact male rats was not affected by ISO but serum triglycerides and hepatic fatty acid synthase expression were decreased by IRDhigh. Trabecular bone mineral density (BMD) was reduced in intact rats on IRDlow, but not on IRDhigh. Orchiectomy induced loss of BMD which was antagonized by IRDhigh. ISO increased androgen sensitivity of seminal vesicle and levator ani, but not of prostate. Intake of IRDhigh resulted in significantly reduced mean testosterone levels compared to IDD group. In addition, ISO plasma levels were reduced by orchiectomy compared to intact and TP treated rats. Different transporters relevant for the transport of ISO phase-II-metabolites through cell membranes (Slc10a1 and Slc21a1 in kidney, Slc22a8 in liver and small intestine, Abcg2 in small intestine) may be involved in this reduction as their mRNA expressions were differently regulated. Further, orchiectomy changed the phase-II-metabolite profile by reducing the amount of sulfate conjugates significantly. In accordance to that, hepatic mRNA expression of Sult1c1 and Sult1e1/e2 was significantly reduced by orchiectomy. The observed effects could almost completely be antagonized by TP treatment. Major finding of the second experiment was the influence of neonatal ISO intake on the female reproductive tract. An increased vaginal epithelial height at PND 23 and a premature vaginal opening were observed in rats treated with ISO during neonatal period. More often irregular estrus cycles were observed later in life in these groups. Further, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were increased at PND 80 in rats treated with ISO during neonatal period. The ISO intake by IRDhigh or ISO suspension resulted in ISO plasma levels which are achievable by dietary intake of high amounts of soy or soy based infant nutrition in humans.
Conclusion: ISO intake, resulting in plasma concentrations also achievable in humans by diet or soy based infant nutrition, affected different endpoints in male and female rats depending on critical periods of exposure. In males, bone homeostasis, lipid metabolism, and androgen sensitivity were dose-dependently affected. Testosterone and ISO influence each other on bioavailability. In females, the neonatal period was identified as a sensitive period to ISO exposure resulting in direct estrogenic effects and adverse effects later in life. More research has to be done on mechanistic based studies identifying the mode of action responsible for the specific effects of ISO in critical periods of development.
Introduction: Isoflavones (ISO) are able to bind to the estrogen receptors and therefore belong to the group of phytoestrogens. Naturally, they occur mainly in soy as glycosides of genistein, daidzein and glycitein. The traditional high intake of soy and, thus, ISO in East Asian diet is often associated with health beneficial effects such as a lower prevalence of hormone-related cancer and obesity compared to Western populations. Therefore, isolated ISO are marketed as part of nutritional supplements to improve prostate health but also to treat postmenopausal disorders among others. Further, soy based infant nutrition is a major source of ISO in western countries. However, neither the positive benefit of ISO is scientifically proven nor the risk of adverse effects is clearly established. Critical differences between the East Asian and Western ISO intake are the different periods of exposure, the dose and the food matrix. The aim of the present thesis was to investigate the influence of ISO during critical periods of development in a Wistar rat model on different endpoints. The major focus was on the one hand the effect of ISO on male organism including the interaction of ISO and androgens and on the other hand the effect of neonatal ISO exposure on the female reproductive tract.
Methods: Therefore, two breeding experiments with Wistar rats were conducted. First, a dose response experiment was performed in male rats starting exposure to ISO in utero, maintaining it through adolescence into adulthood. Until sacrification at postnatal day (PND) 99, rats received an ISO-depleted diet (IDD) or two different ISO-rich diets (IRDlow: 0.068 mg ISO aglycone equivalent/g diet; IRDhigh: 0.506 mg ISO aglycone equivalent/g diet) based on the IDD and enriched with a soy ISO extract. To investigate androgen sensitivity rats were orchiectomized at PND 81. After hormonal decline for 7 days, rats were subcutaneously treated with testosterone propionate [TP (1 mg/kg bw/day)] or vehicle for 11 days. For each diet group a concurrent intact group was investigated as well. A second animal experiment was performed to investigate effects by neonatal ISO exposure. Rats were exposed to IDD and IRD during embryogenesis and adolescence. Female pups of each group were fed daily by pipette with ISO-suspension (ISO+; 32 mg ISO/kg bw) or placebo from PND 1 until PND 23. Female rats were sacrificed at PND 23 and 80, respectively.
Results: Key findings of the first experiment include effects of ISO on fat metabolism, bone density and androgen sensitivity and also the influence of androgens on ISO bioavailability and phase-II-metabolism. The body composition of intact male rats was not affected by ISO but serum triglycerides and hepatic fatty acid synthase expression were decreased by IRDhigh. Trabecular bone mineral density (BMD) was reduced in intact rats on IRDlow, but not on IRDhigh. Orchiectomy induced loss of BMD which was antagonized by IRDhigh. ISO increased androgen sensitivity of seminal vesicle and levator ani, but not of prostate. Intake of IRDhigh resulted in significantly reduced mean testosterone levels compared to IDD group. In addition, ISO plasma levels were reduced by orchiectomy compared to intact and TP treated rats. Different transporters relevant for the transport of ISO phase-II-metabolites through cell membranes (Slc10a1 and Slc21a1 in kidney, Slc22a8 in liver and small intestine, Abcg2 in small intestine) may be involved in this reduction as their mRNA expressions were differently regulated. Further, orchiectomy changed the phase-II-metabolite profile by reducing the amount of sulfate conjugates significantly. In accordance to that, hepatic mRNA expression of Sult1c1 and Sult1e1/e2 was significantly reduced by orchiectomy. The observed effects could almost completely be antagonized by TP treatment. Major finding of the second experiment was the influence of neonatal ISO intake on the female reproductive tract. An increased vaginal epithelial height at PND 23 and a premature vaginal opening were observed in rats treated with ISO during neonatal period. More often irregular estrus cycles were observed later in life in these groups. Further, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were increased at PND 80 in rats treated with ISO during neonatal period. The ISO intake by IRDhigh or ISO suspension resulted in ISO plasma levels which are achievable by dietary intake of high amounts of soy or soy based infant nutrition in humans.
Conclusion: ISO intake, resulting in plasma concentrations also achievable in humans by diet or soy based infant nutrition, affected different endpoints in male and female rats depending on critical periods of exposure. In males, bone homeostasis, lipid metabolism, and androgen sensitivity were dose-dependently affected. Testosterone and ISO influence each other on bioavailability. In females, the neonatal period was identified as a sensitive period to ISO exposure resulting in direct estrogenic effects and adverse effects later in life. More research has to be done on mechanistic based studies identifying the mode of action responsible for the specific effects of ISO in critical periods of development.
Original language | German |
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Place of Publication | Köln |
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Publisher | Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln |
Publication status | Published - 2017 |